The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice

Research on the psychology of learning has highlighted straightforward ways of enhancing learning. However, effective learning strategies are underused by learners. In this Review, we discuss key research findings on two specific learning strategies: spacing and retrieval practice. We focus on how these strategies enhance learning in various domains across the lifespan, with an emphasis on research in applied educational settings. We also discuss key findings from research on metacognition — learners’ awareness and regulation of their own learning. The underuse of effective learning strategies by learners could stem from false beliefs about learning, lack of awareness of effective learning strategies or the counter-intuitive nature of these strategies. Findings in learner metacognition highlight the need to improve learners’ subjective mental models of how to learn effectively. Overall, the research discussed in this Review has important implications for the increasingly common situations in which learners must effectively monitor and regulate their own learning.